"Only in the decades after the Second World War did European and North American countries begin to establish national and international standards relating to medical ethics, prompted in no small part by the horrors of the Holocaust, but also triggered by a range of biomedical errors and accidents. And not until after mid-century did ethical conversations extend to human subjects research and patientsโ rights globally [30-33]."
and also. "Adolf Kocher, a student of Lacassagne, published a medical thesis entitled De la criminalitรฉ chez les Arabes au point de vue de la pratique mรฉdico-judiciaire en Algรฉrie (On criminality among the Arabs from the perspective of medico-judicial practice in Algeria). An authentic medico-legal treatise intended for doctors posted in Algeria, this work constitutes one of the first systematic studies, in French, on criminality in a colonial context. A brief review of the context in which medical knowledge encounters the colonial question is followed by discussion of the context of the reception of the thesis. A critical reading unfolds in two parts: first discussing the manner by which this study of criminality envisions โ not without paradox โ the question of ยซ the Arabโs ยป criminal repsonsibility. We then show how the Arab gradually becomes the exemplar of the criminal type, based mainly on the medico-legal category of offenses against public decency. How far may one go in supporting the study of indigenous sexuality as an edifying contrast to western standards without definitively indexing it to an exclusive set of pathological varieties? "
